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- What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods
What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods
Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on January 30, 2023.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.
A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .
Table of contents
When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case.
A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.
Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.
You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.
Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:
- Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
- Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
- Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
- Open up new directions for future research
Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.
However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.
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While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:
- Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
- Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
- Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions
To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.
There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.
The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.
In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.
How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .
Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).
In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.
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Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education.
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BSc (Hons), Psychology, MSc, Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some kind of investigation.
There are four types of hypotheses :
- Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
- Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
- One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
- Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’
All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.
Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other.
So if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null. The opposite applies if no difference is found.
Sampling techniques
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.
A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalisations about.
Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.
Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.
- A Volunteer sample is where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
- Opportunity sampling, also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
- Random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
- Systematic sampling is when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
- Stratified sampling is when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion with their occurrences.
- Snowball sampling is when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
- Quota sampling is when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits with certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.
Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .
- The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is aassumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
- The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.
Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’ but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two hour period.
By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.
Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results of the experiment.
It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.
Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.
For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them.
Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.
Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables.
Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way
Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.
- Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization.
- Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
- Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
- The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
- They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
- Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants
If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way.
Experimental Methods
All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)., lab experiments are conducted in a well-controlled environment, not necessarily a laboratory, and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible..
The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances, using a standardized procedure.
Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.
Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.
Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.
Correlational Studies
Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.
Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures.
The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable
Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.
- If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
- If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
- A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.
After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.
The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.
A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.
Correlation does not always prove causation as a third variable may be involved.
Interview Methods
Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.
In a structured interview , the interview situation is standardized as far as possible. Structured interviews are formal, like job interviews.
There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers, is preset by the researcher.
The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.
Unstructured interviews are informal, like casual conversations. They are normally preceded by a general conversation and the researcher deliberately adopts an informal approach in an attempt to break down social barriers.
There are no set questions, and the participant is allowed to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. In this kind of interview, much qualitative data is likely to be collected.
Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research designed to analyze attitudes and values. Though rarely providing a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe the subjective point of view of social actors.
Questionnaire Method
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.
The questions asked can be open-ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent’s answers, or they can be more tightly structured, requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives.
The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent, or causing offense.
Postal questionnaire seems to offer the opportunity of getting round the problem of interview bias by reducing the personal involvement of the researcher.
Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact a large number of respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.
Observations
There are different types of observation methods :
- Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants that they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
- Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants that they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
- Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
- Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
- Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.
- Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed.
Pilot Study
A pilot study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.
A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.
A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.
Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low. The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.
Research Design
In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time
Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.
In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.
Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the validity of the study.
Reliability
Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.
Test-retest reliability – Assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
Inter-observer reliability – the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.
Meta-Analysis
A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.
This is done by looking through various databases and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.
Strengths: Increases the validity of the conclusions drawn as they’re based on a wider range.
Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary so they are not truly comparable.
Peer Review
A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.
The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.
Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.
The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.
Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.
Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.
Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.
The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.
Types of Data
- Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
- Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
- Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
- Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.
Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.
Validity is whether the observed effect in genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.
- Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
- Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
- Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
- Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.
Features of Science
- Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
- Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
- Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
- Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
- Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
- Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.
Statistical Testing
A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation or association in the variables tested.
If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.
If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.
In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.
A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).
A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).
Ethical Issues
- Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
- To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
- Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
- All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
- It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
- Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
- Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.
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Case Studies Psychology
- Addiction Treatment Theories
- Aversion Therapy
- Behavioural Interventions
- Drug Therapy
- Gambling Addiction
- Nicotine Addiction
- Physical and Psychological Dependence
- Reducing Addiction
- Risk Factors for Addiction
- Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change
- Theory of Planned Behaviour
- Theory of Reasoned Action
- Tolerance and Withdrawal Syndrome
- Behaviour Modification
- Biological Explanations for Bullying
- Bullying Behaviour
- Cortisol Research
- Deindividuation
- Ethological Explanations of Aggression
- Evolution of Human Aggression
- Fixed Action Patterns
- Frustration Aggression Hypothesis
- Gender and Aggression
- Genetic Origins of Aggression
- Genetic Research on Serotonin
- Genetical Research on Testosterone
- Genetics of Aggression
- Innate Releasing Mechanisms
- Institutional Aggression in The Context of Prisons
- Limbic System
- Media Influences on Aggression
- Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression
- Serotonin Research
- Social Psychological Explanation of Aggression
- Sykes Deprivation Model
- Testosterone Research
- The Hydraulic Model of Instinctive Behaviour
- The Importation Model
- Violent Video Games and Aggression
- Warrior Gene
- Bandura Bobo Doll
- Behaviourism
- Biological Approach
- Classical Conditioning
- Cognitive approach
- Comparison of Approaches Psychology
- Defence Mechanisms
- Emergence of Psychology as a Science
- Forty Four Juvenile Thieves
- Free Will and Self-Actualisation
- Genetic Basis of Behaviour
- Genotype and Phenotype
- Humanistic Psychology
- Id Ego Superego
- Learning Approaches
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Operant Conditioning
- Origin of Psychology
- Psychodynamic Approach
- Psychosexual Stages Of Development
- Raine et al 1997
- Rogers Client-Centred Therapy
- Social Learning Theory
- The Case Of Little Hans
- The Self Congruence and Conditions of Worth
- Twin Studies Gottesman
- Wundt and Introspection
- Ainsworth's Strange Situation
- Alternatives To The Medical Model
- Animal Studies of Attachment
- Attachment Figures
- Attachment and Later Relationships
- Auditory Attention
- BBC Prison Study
- Behaviour Strategies For Autism
- Biological Explanations for Autism
- Bowlby Theory of Maternal Deprivation
- Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
- Caregiver Infant Interactions
- Categorising Mental Disorders
- Classic and Contemporary Research into Memory
- Classic and Contemporary Research into Obedience
- Cognitive Approach to Depression
- Cognitive Interview
- Conformity to Social Roles
- Contemporary Research - Language of Psychopaths
- Context-Dependent Memory
- Cross-Cultural Altruism
- Cue-Dependent Forgetting
- Cultural Variations in Attachment
- Definitions of Abnormality
- Deprivation Privation and Separation
- Developmental Pattern of Digit Span
- Developmental Psychology in Memory
- Developmental Psychology in Obedience/Prejudice
- Disobedience and Whistle-Blowing
- Dispositional Factors Social Influence
- Explanations for Prejudice
- Explanations of Attachment
- Eyewitness Identification under Stress
- Eyewitness Testimony
- Features of Memory
- Forgetting in Psychology
- Gould Bias in IQ Testing
- Hazan and Shaver
- History of Mental Health
- Inattentional Blindness
- Individual Differences In Autism
- Individual Differences In Memory
- Individual Differences in Ideological Attitudes and Prejudice
- Informational Social Influence
- Issues and Debates in the Context of Obedience/Prejudice
- Learning Theory
- Long-Term Memory
- Measuring Individual Differences
- Medical Model
- Milgram Experiment
- Milgram’s Variation Studies
- Minority Influence and Social Change
- Multi-Store Model of Memory
- Normative Social Influence
- Phobia Treatment
- Piliavin Subway Study
- Prosocial Behaviour And Altruism
- Psychopathology
- Realistic Conflict Theory
- Reconstruction From Memory in Naturalistic Environments
- Reconstructive Memory
- Resistance to Social Influence
- Rethinking the Psychology of Tyranny
- Romanian Orphan Studies
- Schema Theory
- Semantic Knowledge in Patient HM
- Short-Term Memory
- Situational Influence
- Social Identity Theory
- Social Impact Theory
- Social Influence
- Stages of Attachment
- Stanford Prison Experiment
- Studies on Interference
- The Robbers Cave Experiment
- Theories of Autism
- Working Memory Model
- Biological Influences on Drug Use
- Defining consciousness
- Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
- Heritability
- Influences on Drug Use
- Lesioning Research
- Neural Fluidity
- Neural Plasticity
- Psychoactive Drugs
- Psychological Influences on Drug Use
- Sleep Deprivation
- Sleep Disorders
- States of Consciousness
- The Cerebral Cortex
- The Limbic System
- Theories of Dreams
- Theories of Sleep
- Types of Psychoactive Drugs
- Biological Rhythms
- Blakemore and Cooper
- CAT and PET Scan
- Circadian, Infradian and Ultradian Rhythms
- Electroencephalogram (EEGs) and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
- Evolution and Behavior
- Fight-or-Flight Response and The Role of Adrenaline
- Functional Magnetic Resonance
- Hemispheric Lateralisation
- Localisation of Function in the Brain
- Motor Area of Brain
- Nervous System Divisions
- Neuron Structure and Function
- Neurotransmitters
- Plasticity and Functional Recovery of the Brain After Trauma
- Post Mortem Examination
- Process of Synaptic Transmission
- Sleep Wake Cycle
- The Function of the Endocrine System - Glands and hormones
- Ways of Studying the Brain
- Mental Health Careers
- Political Psychology
- Psychologist Education Requirements
- Abnormal Behavior
- Alternative Therapies
- Anxiety Disorders
- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Behavioral Therapies
- Binge Eating Disorder
- Biomedical Procedures
- Biomedical Therapy
- Bipolar Disorder
- Brain Abnormalities in Schizophrenia
- Bulimia Nervosa
- Categories of Disorders
- Causes of Eating Disorders
- Client Centered Therapy
- Cognitive Therapy
- Cultural Considerations in Therapy
- Depressive Disorder
- Diagnosing Psychological Disorders
- Dissociative Amnesia
- Dissociative Disorders
- Dissociative Identity Disorder
- Eating Disorders
- Effectiveness of Therapy
- General Anxiety Disorder
- Group and Family Therapy
- History of Mental Health Treatment
- Humanistic Therapy
- Insight Therapy
- Intellectual Disability
- Major Depressive Disorder
- Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Panic Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- Preventive Mental Health
- Psychoanalytic Therapy
- Psychological Disorders
- Psychological Perspectives and Etiology of Disorders
- Psychological Perspectives in the Treatment of Disorders
- Psychotherapy
- Schizophrenic Disorders
- Seasonal Affective Disorder
- Self-Help Groups
- Somatic Symptom Disorders
- Somatic and Dissociative Disorders
- Subtypes of Schizophrenia
- The Rosenhan Study - The Influence of Labels
- Treatment of Psychological Disorders
- Types of Personality Disorders
- Types of Therapy
- Bartlett War of the Ghosts
- Brain Development
- Bruner and Minturn Study of Perceptual Set
- Computation
- Conservation of Number Piaget
- Constructive Processes in Memory
- Correlation
- Data handling
- Depth Cues Psychology
- Designing Research
- Developmental Research
- Dweck's Theory of Mindset
- Ethical considerations in research
- Experimental Method
- Factors Affecting Perception
- Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Memory
- Formulation of Hypothesis
- Gibson's Theory of Direct Perception
- Gregory's Constructivist Theory of Perception
- Gunderson et al 2013 study
- Hughes Policeman Doll Study
- Issues and Debates in Developmental Psychology
- Language and Perception
- McGarrigle and Donaldson Naughty Teddy
- Memory Processes
- Memory recall
- Nature and Nurture in Development
- Normal Distribution Psychology
- Perception Research
- Perceptual Set
- Piagets Theory in Education
- Planning and Conducting Research
- Population Samples
- Primary and Secondary Data
- Quantitative Data
- Quantitative and Qualitative Data
- Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
- Research Procedures
- Serial Position Effect
- Short-term Retention
- Structures of Memory
- Tables, Charts and Graphs
- The Effects of Learning on Development
- The Gilchrist and Nesberg study of motivation
- Three Mountains Task
- Types of Variable
- Types of bias and how to control
- Visual Cues and Constancies
- Visual illusions
- Willingham's Learning Theory
- Baillargeon Explanation of Early Infant Abilities
- Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
- Moral Development in Childhood
- Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development
- The Development of Social Cognition
- Theory of Mind
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When researchers are interested in studying a phenomenon that may be rare, unusual, or require lengthy observations over time, they use case studies, and case studies are pretty helpful. They allow researchers to gain in-depth insights into cases and provide a lot of detail compared to other forms of research.
Some of the most famous studies in psychology are case studies, which we will cover in this explanation. First, let's fully define what we mean by case studies. According to the American Psychological Association¹, case studies are:
an in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships , and behaviour.
- First, we will cover what Case Studies are in Psychology.
- Throughout the explanation, we will provide case study examples, delving into different case study descriptions to understand case studies in psychology.
- We will discuss the case studies methodology to understand the case study research processes, before finally evaluating case studies to examine their effectiveness
Case studies are a common research method used when exploring new research areas, as researchers want a detailed understanding of a new phenomenon. Case studies are occasionally used to form new theories, hypotheses or research questions.
Case Studies Examples in Psychology Research
Phineas Gage is a famous example of a case study. Researchers wanted to understand the effects of the accident on his cognitive functions and behaviours. Not many people survive such an injury, so this was an opportunity to examine how the brain deals with significant damage.
Phineas had an accident at work where a metal rod went through his skull and pierced through his frontal lobe (front part of the brain).
After the accident, Gage was observed and completed several cognitive and psychometric tests over a long time. The case study aimed to see if and how damage to the frontal lobe may cause behavioural changes.
The case study results showed that Gage initially had a decline in cognitive abilities. However, over time these started to increase. The researchers noted that Gage's intelligence returned to a 'normal level'. Gage's friends stated that his personality had changed and that he was no longer the same person; he became vulgar and aggressive.
This is an important finding in psychology. It shows that other brain areas may take over and compensate for deficiencies caused by brain damage. But, there may be a limit to how much or what skills and attributes can be compensated for.
As Phineas Gage's case was unique and his conditions could not be replicated using the experimental method (against ethical standards of research), a case study was the only appropriate method to use. The research was also explorative as little was known about the frontal lobe's function. Therefore, it may have been difficult to form hypotheses.
Hypotheses are formed based on existing knowledge; researchers cannot randomly make a hypothesis based on what they think will happen. Researchers do not believe that this is a scientific way to theorise research.
Case Study Methodology
When conducting a case study, the first step is forming a hypothesis. These hypotheses aim to identify research areas and concepts that the researcher is interested in.
This is different to experimental research as experimental research tends to define and state expected results. In contrast, the case study's hypotheses may be broader.
Next, the researcher will identify the best method that should be used to measure the variables that the researcher is interested in. When doing case studies, sometimes multiple research methods can be used.
This concept is known as triangulation.
A case study may use questionnaires and interviews when researching mental health in indigenous people.
As with all forms of research, the next stage is data analysis once the research has been conducted. As case studies may use various research methods, the type of analysis used depends on which method is used. The case studies aim to provide in-depth knowledge. Therefore, case studies favour qualitative research, such as unstructured interviews and observations. Open-ended questions allow for further exploration, as is used in qualitative research.
Case studies also sometimes use quantitative research methods. Therefore statistical analyses may also be used in case studies.
The final stage of the case study methodology is to report the data. Case studies usually produce qualitative data.
Qualitative data is non-numerical, detailed findings.
Case studies are usually written in the form of detailed reports. The report should include all the findings found throughout the study and how these were measured.
Evaluation of Using Case Studies
Let's now discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using case studies in research.
Advantages of using case studies
The advantages of case studies are:
- It provides detailed qualitative data that allows researchers to understand phenomena. This can help researchers uncover new concepts that can be later investigated in controlled environments (the experimental method).
- It is typically considered explorative research. For example, when researchers do not know much about a phenomenon, a case study is used to help derive hypotheses that will be used in later research.
- it can be used to research unique situations which are usually gatekept by ethical issues.
Researchers cannot physically harm participants to observe what happens to them. Case studies are useful to investigate this.
Phineas Gage suffered brain damage due to an accident, presenting an opportunity to researchers to investigate the effects of such damage on the brain. This would otherwise be impossible, as researchers cannot damage a person's brain intentionally to find out what happens as a result (fortunately for us!)
Disadvantages of using case studies
The disadvantages of using case studies are:
- They are extremely difficult to replicate. So, it is difficult to compare the results from a case study to another study; therefore, this research design has low reliability.
- It uses a small, selective sample the results are usually not generally representative of the population. Therefore, the results tend to be non-generalisable.
- It can be quite time-consuming to carry out and analyse case studies.
Case Studies Psychology - Key Takeaways
- Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon.
- A case study in psychology is Phineas Gage; a case study was used because his conditions were unique and could not be replicated due to ethical issues. In addition, little was still known about the research area.
- Case studies can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data, however, they are quite useful for qualitative research.
- researchers can get an in-depth understanding, it can be used to help direct future research and it can be used to research unique situations or characteristics of people that cannot be replicated.
- they lack reliability and generalisability and are time-consuming and expensive.
1. VandenBos, G. R. (2007). APA dictionary of psychology . American Psychological Association.
Frequently Asked Questions about Case Studies Psychology
--> what is a case study.
Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon.
--> What are some examples of case studies?
Some examples of case studies that are famous in psychology are:
- Patient H.M (brain damage and memory)
- Phineas Gage (brain damage and personality and cognitive skills)
- Genie (deprivation and development)
--> What are case studies used for?
Case studies are used to get in-depth information about a phenomenon. It is usually used as a design when doing explorative research such as trying to form theories, hypotheses or, research questions.
--> What is the most famous case study in psychology?
An infamous case study is Phineas Gage. He had an accident in which a rod went through his frontal lobe (front part of the brain). He survived the accident but he showed a decline in cognitive abilities and his personality changed.
--> Why are case studies important in research?
Case studies are important in research because:
- can gather data from multiple people and get differing perspectives
- allows in-depth understanding that may be difficult to find in quantitative research
- researchers can investigate unique situations that may not be able to be replicated because of ethical issues
Final Case Studies Psychology Quiz
What is a case study?
Show answer
Case studies are a type of research design that is used when a researcher is investigating a single person, group or event/phenomenon. This research method collects in-depth data on either of these.
Show question
Which of the following are reasons that case studies are used in research?
They are always better than laboratory settings
Why was a case study used to investigate Phineas Gage?
As Phineas Gage's case was unique and his conditions could not be replicated using the experimental method (against ethical standards of research) a case study was the only appropriate method to use. As little was known about the function of the frontal lobe the research was also explorative. Therefore, it may have been difficult to form hypotheses.
Typically case studies use various methods to collect data, true or false?
What is triangulation?
Triangulation is when researchers use multiple methods to collect data.
What type of data do case studies favour?
Qualitative
What is a typical structure that case studies use for writing reports?
A structure that researchers may follow to report a case study is that they may identify key themes or findings. Then, evidence of this is included such as an extract from a transcribed interview as evidence.
The data will likely include quantitative statistical data too
Case studies can use what forms of analysis?
Content analysis
Thematic analysis
What are the advantages of using case studies?
The advantages of using case studies are:
- researchers can get an in-depth understanding
- it can be used to help direct future research
- it can be used to research unique situations or characteristics of people that cannot be replicated
What are the disadvantages of using case studies?
- they lack reliability
- they lack generalisability
- it is time-consuming
- it can be expensive
Case studies collect qualitative data, true or false?
Case studies only investigate one person. Is this statement true?
No, sometimes it can be done on a group of people who share a trait.
Case studies are an investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity.
Case studies are considered explorative in nature.
explorative
Case studies can be used to research unique situations which are usually gatekept by issues.
- Sensation and Perception
- Careers in Psychology
- Schizophrenia
of the users don't pass the Case Studies Psychology quiz! Will you pass the quiz?
More explanations about Cognition
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Case Examples
Examples of recommended interventions in the treatment of depression across the lifespan.
Children/Adolescents
A 15-year-old Puerto Rican female
The adolescent was previously diagnosed with major depressive disorder and treated intermittently with supportive psychotherapy and antidepressants. Her more recent episodes related to her parents’ marital problems and her academic/social difficulties at school. She was treated using cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).
Chafey, M.I.J., Bernal, G., & Rossello, J. (2009). Clinical Case Study: CBT for Depression in A Puerto Rican Adolescent. Challenges and Variability in Treatment Response. Depression and Anxiety , 26, 98-103. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20457
Sam, a 15-year-old adolescent
Sam was team captain of his soccer team, but an unexpected fight with another teammate prompted his parents to meet with a clinical psychologist. Sam was diagnosed with major depressive disorder after showing an increase in symptoms over the previous three months. Several recent challenges in his family and romantic life led the therapist to recommend interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents (IPT-A).
Hall, E.B., & Mufson, L. (2009). Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A): A Case Illustration. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38 (4), 582-593. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410902976338
© Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (Div. 53) APA, https://sccap53.org/ , reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com on behalf of the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (Div. 53) APA.
General Adults
Mark, a 43-year-old male (PDF, 821KB)
Mark had a history of depression and sought treatment after his second marriage ended. His depression was characterized as being “controlled by a pattern of interpersonal avoidance.” The behavior/activation therapist asked Mark to complete an activity record to help steer the treatment sessions.
Dimidjian, S., Martell, C.R., Addis, M.E., & Herman-Dunn, R. (2008). Chapter 8: Behavioral activation for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 343-362). New York: Guilford Press.
Reprinted with permission from Guilford Press.
Denise, a 59-year-old widow (PDF, 711KB)
Denise is described as having “nonchronic depression” which appeared most recently at the onset of her husband’s diagnosis with brain cancer. Her symptoms were loneliness, difficulty coping with daily life, and sadness. Treatment included filling out a weekly activity log and identifying/reconstructing automatic thoughts.
Young, J.E., Rygh, J.L., Weinberger, A.D., & Beck, A.T. (2008). Chapter 6: Cognitive therapy for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 278-287). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Nancy, a 25-year-old single, white female (PDF, 4MB)
Nancy described herself as being “trapped by her relationships.” Her intake interview confirmed symptoms of major depressive disorder and the clinician recommended cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Persons, J.B., Davidson, J. & Tompkins, M.A. (2001). A Case Example: Nancy. In Essential Components of Cognitive-Behavior Therapy For Depression (pp. 205-242). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10389-007
While APA owns the rights to this text, some exhibits are property of the San Francisco Bay Area Center for Cognitive Therapy, which has granted the APA permission for use.
Luke, a 34-year-old male graduate student (PDF, 227KB)
Luke is described as having treatment-resistant depression and while not suicidal, hoped that a fatal illness would take his life or that he would just disappear. His treatment involved mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, which helps participants become aware of and recharacterize their overwhelming negative thoughts. It involves regular practice of mindfulness techniques and exercises as one component of therapy.
Sipe, W.E.B., & Eisendrath, S.J. (2014). Chapter 3 — Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy For Treatment-Resistant Depression. In R.A. Baer (Ed.), Mindfulness-Based Treatment Approaches (2nd ed., pp. 66-70). San Diego: Academic Press.
Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.
Sara, a 35-year-old married female (PDF, 704KB)
Sara was referred to treatment after having a stillbirth. Sara showed symptoms of grief, or complicated bereavement, and was diagnosed with major depression, recurrent. The clinician recommended interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for a duration of 12 weeks.
Bleiberg, K.L., & Markowitz, J.C. (2008). Chapter 7: Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: a treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 315-323). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Peggy, a 52-year-old white, Italian-American widow
Peggy had a history of chronic depression, which flared during her husband’s illness and ultimate death. Guilt was a driving factor of her depressive symptoms, which lasted six months after his death. The clinician treated Peggy with psychodynamic therapy over a period of two years.
Bishop, J., & Lane , R.C. (2003). Psychodynamic Treatment of a Case of Grief Superimposed On Melancholia. Clinical Case Studies , 2(1), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650102239085
Several case examples of supportive therapy
Winston, A., Rosenthal, R.N., & Pinsker, H. (2004). Introduction to Supportive Psychotherapy . Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Publishing.
Older Adults
Several case examples of interpersonal psychotherapy & pharmacotherapy
Miller, M. D., Wolfson, L., Frank, E., Cornes, C., Silberman, R., Ehrenpreis, L.…Reynolds, C. F., III. (1998). Using Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) in a Combined Psychotherapy/Medication Research Protocol with Depressed Elders: A Descriptive Report With Case Vignettes. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research , 7(1), 47-55.
- Anxiety Disorders
- Bipolar Disorder
- Breast Cancer
- Dissociative Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- Primary Care
- Schizophrenia
- Sleepdisorders
- Substance Abuse Disorders
n. an in-depth assessment and investigation conducted on a target individual, family unit, or social group. It requires a researcher to collect multiple types of data that would prove to be useful in creating a complete biographical, psychological, physiological, and environmental background on the case.
Related Psychology Terms
- Using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale: A Case Study on Grief
- Diagnosis and Treatment Planning
- Discrimination and Mental Illness in the LGBT Population
- A Comparison of Maternal and Paternal Filicide
- CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
- Comparison of Assessment Tools
- Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Developing a Case Study
- Using the Triage Assessment Form
- ADOLESCENCE (Theories)
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Research psychology is an important aspect of identifying unwanted mental health behaviors and developing effective treatments to mitigate them. Psychologists often review psychology case studies and other published reports to gather relative information regarding a patient's symptoms. Knowing the relevance of psychology case studies in the medical field can help you understand the need for them in the future. In this article, we address what a psychology case study is, why it's important to conduct these studies, types of case studies and how to write a psychology case study, with helpful tips.
What is a psychology case study?
A psychology case study is a thorough study of a single person, community or event that relies on observations, facts and experiments to gather information. Psychologists collect information for a case study through psychometric testing, observation, interviews, experiments and case study archives. These studies typically explore psychological processes and behaviors to provide information for future research on a condition or behavior. Sometimes, a case study may observe all parts of an individual's life and behaviors.
Why are psychology case studies important?
Psychology case studies are important because they can help support psychological theories and assist with developing treatments or confirming diagnoses. They can also allow future psychologists to have additional in-depth empirical research to review in order to expand their own case study research. Having prior case studies to compare information can also help research development processes in the future.
Types of psychology case studies
Here are six types of case studies a research psychologist may decide to conduct:
Collective case studies: A psychologist studies a group of people or community in specific conditions.
Descriptive case studies: This involves observing and studying an individual using descriptive theory and comparing research data to existing theories.
Explanatory case studies: A researcher investigates specific conditions or occurrences to identify an explanation for a phenomenon.
Exploratory case studies: The psychologist gathers large-scale research information to provide in-depth knowledge on a subject prior to designing a research hypothesis and methodologies. These studies are useful while trying to prove that investigating prior to developing methods is essential to a case study.
Instrumental case studies: This involves studying the relationship between variables to understand or gain insight into a phenomenon.
Intrinsic case studies: The researcher studies a single personal subject and how their experiences may influence their mental health and behaviors.
Benefits of psychology case studies
Here are some common benefits of a psychology case study:
It allows researchers to analyze behaviors and conditions that may be difficult to replicate in laboratory settings.
Studies provide additional insight on a phenomenon for a researcher to gain a better understanding.
It can allow researchers to gather and document information about rare conditions or cases.
It may provide new evidence to support relevant psychological theories.
It can help researchers develop a hypothesis that may be useful to other psychology research studies in the future.
How to write a psychology case study
When thinking of writing your own case study, consider these eight steps to help get you started:
1. Gather information to create a profile for a subject
It's important to understand as much as you can about the research subject prior to developing research methods and a hypothesis. You can use previous case studies for supplemental data that may help you conduct and understand theories or information to enhance your research for the case study. After collecting information from previous studies, gather information on the subject from these four areas:
Official or government records: This includes employment history, academic history and medical records.
Personal items: This includes a subject's diary, photographs, personal notes to themselves and official clinical notes or reports.
Interviews: This includes speaking to the subject directly and also their friends, family, coworkers, professors, neighbors and employers.
Observations: This includes observing the subject as they perform daily routines.
2. Choose a case study method
There are two methods to choose from while developing a psychology case study: the prospective method and the retrospective method. Consider what the case study explores and what research you're hoping to discover in order to select the correct method. A prospective case study involves observing an individual or group to determine and understand psychological outcomes. Retrospective case studies use historical information, such as a subject's diagnosis, to determine what factors throughout their life may affect the subject's psychological health and previous behaviors.
3. Collect information regarding the subject's background
The first section of a case study includes the subject's history or background. In this section, a research psychologist collects the following information:
Employment status
Health status
Family members
Relationship status
Family health history
Drug and alcohol history
Challenges in life
Coping skills
4. Describe the subject's symptoms or problems
Include any emotional, physical or sensory symptoms a subject may experience in order to develop a proper treatment. Thoughts, feelings or concerns that relate to the symptoms the subject is experiencing are also valuable to document in your study. If the subject undergoes any testing, describe all scores and assessments relevant to the case study.
5. Analyze the data and establish a diagnosis
This step involves using the data from your research to analyze and select the appropriate diagnosis for the subject. To provide evidence to support your diagnosis, explain each step of your research methods and include the subject's symptoms. Symptoms can also provide support and show how the subject meets the diagnostic criteria for a specific disorder.
6. Choose a treatment approach
The next step in writing a psychology case study is to choose a treatment approach once you reach a diagnosis. Here are four treatment approaches you may decide to use:
Cognitive-behavioral approach: This approach allows a psychologist to offer treatment using therapy sessions and allowing a subject to develop cognitive-behavioral coping mechanisms. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can help individuals adjust their ways of thinking and create healthier thinking patterns to improve their mental health.
Humanistic approach: This approach describes treatments that relate to a subject's behavior, feelings and self-esteem. A psychologist may use a humanistic treatment to help a subject realize their potential and improve their overall well-being.
Psychoanalytic approach: Psychoanalytic treatments use talk therapy to understand aspects of the unconscious mind and how it may affect behavior. This approach can help identify any repressed experiences or memories that may provoke symptoms of mental illness.
Pharmacological approach: Psychiatrists who use this approach typically prescribe medication to treat symptoms of mental illness rather than talk therapy. Since this treatment primarily uses medication, it's vital to document each medication treatment and its effectiveness.
7. Describe treatment goals and processes
After identifying a treatment approach, define the goals of using this treatment, how you intend to use the treatment and any outcomes you expect to occur after treatment. Some goals may include eliminating symptoms entirely or using the treatment to reduce some symptoms and implement coping strategies so the subject can return to a functional life. It's important to document your treatment methods and monitor how the subject responds to the treatment to provide further information on the diagnosis for future research.
8. Write a discussion section
The last section in a psychology case study is the discussion section. In this section, you describe all processes, findings and factors of the case study, including any limitations and how the study supports previous research. This section also includes any psychological findings or ideas that may require further research. The discussion section gives you an opportunity to review all aspects of your study and determine its accuracy, the benefits it may provide to future research studies and approaches for treatment a psychologist may use with a different subject who has a similar history and symptoms.
Tips for writing a psychology case study
Here are four tips to consider while writing a psychology case study:
Remember to use the rules of APA formatting.
Use fictitious names instead of referring to the patient as a client.
Refer to previous case studies to understand how to format and stylize your study.
Proofread and revise your report before submitting it.
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How to Write a Case Conceptualization: 10 Examples (+ PDF)
Such understanding can be developed by reading relevant records, meeting with clients face to face, and using assessments such as a mental status examination.
As you proceed, you are forming a guiding concept of who this client is, how they became who they are, and where their personal journey might be heading.
Such a guiding concept, which will shape any needed interventions, is called a case conceptualization, and we will examine various examples in this article.
Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will provide you with detailed insight into positive Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and give you the tools to apply it in your therapy or coaching.
This Article Contains:
What is a case conceptualization or formulation, 4 things to include in your case formulation, a helpful example & model, 3 samples of case formulations, 6 templates and worksheets for counselors, relevant resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.
In psychology and related fields, a case conceptualization summarizes the key facts and findings from an evaluation to provide guidance for recommendations.
This is typically the evaluation of an individual, although you can extend the concept of case conceptualization to summarizing findings about a group or organization.
Based on the case conceptualization, recommendations can be made to improve a client’s self-care , mental status, job performance, etc (Sperry & Sperry, 2020).
- Summary of the client’s identifying information, referral questions, and timeline of important events or factors in their life . A timeline can be especially helpful in understanding how the client’s strengths and limitations have evolved.
- Statement of the client’s core strengths . Identifying core strengths in the client’s life should help guide any recommendations, including how strengths might be used to offset limitations.
- Statement concerning a client’s limitations or weaknesses . This will also help guide any recommendations. If a weakness is worth mentioning in a case conceptualization, it is worth writing a recommendation about it.
Note: As with mental status examinations , observations in this context concerning weaknesses are not value judgments, about whether the client is a good person, etc. The observations are clinical judgments meant to guide recommendations.
- A summary of how the strengths, limitations, and other key information about a client inform diagnosis and prognosis .
You should briefly clarify how you arrived at a given diagnosis. For example, why do you believe a personality disorder is primary, rather than a major depressive disorder?
Many clinicians provide diagnoses in formal psychiatric terms, per the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Some clinicians will state a diagnosis in less formal terms that do not coincide exactly with ICD-10 or DSM-5 codes. What is arguably more important is that a diagnostic impression, formal or not, gives a clear sense of who the person is and the support they need to reach their goals.
Prognosis is a forecast about whether the client’s condition can be expected to improve, worsen, or remain stable. Prognosis can be difficult, as it often depends on unforeseeable factors. However, this should not keep you from offering a conservative opinion on a client’s expected course, provided treatment recommendations are followed.
Based on the pointers for writing a case conceptualization above, an example for summarizing an adolescent case (in this instance, a counseling case for relieving depression and improving social skills) might read as follows.
Background and referral information
This is a 15-year-old Haitian–American youth, referred by his mother for concerns about self-isolation, depression, and poor social skills. He reportedly moved with his mother to the United States three years ago.
He reportedly misses his life and friends in Haiti. The mother states he has had difficulty adjusting socially in the United States, especially with peers. He has become increasingly self-isolating, appears sad and irritable, and has started to refuse to go to school.
His mother is very supportive and aware of his emotional–behavioral needs. The youth has been enrolled in a social skills group at school and has attended three sessions, with some reported benefit. He is agreeable to start individual counseling. He reportedly does well in school academically when he applies himself.
Limitations
Behavioral form completed by his mother shows elevated depression scale (T score = 80). There is a milder elevation on the inattention scale (T score = 60), which suggests depression is more acute than inattention and might drive it.
He is also elevated on a scale measuring social skills and involvement (T score = 65). Here too, it is reasonable to assume that depression is driving social isolation and difficulty relating to peers, especially since while living in Haiti, he was reportedly quite social with peers.
Diagnostic impressions, treatment guidance, prognosis
This youth’s history, presentation on interview, and results of emotional–behavioral forms suggest some difficulty with depression, likely contributing to social isolation. As he has no prior reported history of depression, this is most likely a reaction to missing his former home and difficulty adjusting to his new school and peers.
Treatments should include individual counseling with an evidence-based approach such as Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT). His counselor should consider emotional processing and social skills building as well.
Prognosis is favorable, with anticipated benefit apparent within 12 sessions of CBT.
How to write a case conceptualization: An outline
The following outline is necessarily general. It can be modified as needed, with points excluded or added, depending on the case.
- Client’s gender, age, level of education, vocational status, marital status
- Referred by whom, why, and for what type of service (e.g., testing, counseling, coaching)
- In the spirit of strengths-based assessment, consider listing the client’s strengths first, before any limitations.
- Consider the full range of positive factors supporting the client.
- Physical health
- Family support
- Financial resources
- Capacity to work
- Resilience or other positive personality traits
- Emotional stability
- Cognitive strengths, per history and testing
- The client’s limitations or relative weaknesses should be described in a way that highlights those most needing attention or treatment.
- Medical conditions affecting daily functioning
- Lack of family or other social support
- Limited financial resources
- Inability to find or hold suitable employment
- Substance abuse or dependence
- Proneness to interpersonal conflict
- Emotional–behavioral problems, including anxious or depressive symptoms
- Cognitive deficits, per history and testing
- Diagnoses that are warranted can be given in either DSM-5 or ICD-10 terms.
- There can be more than one diagnosis given. If that’s the case, consider describing these in terms of primary diagnosis, secondary diagnosis, etc.
- The primary diagnosis should best encompass the client’s key symptoms or traits, best explain their behavior, or most need treatment.
- Take care to avoid over-assigning multiple and potentially overlapping diagnoses.
When writing a case conceptualization, always keep in mind the timeline of significant events or factors in the examinee’s life.
- Decide which events or factors are significant enough to include in a case conceptualization.
- When these points are placed in a timeline, they help you understand how the person has evolved to become who they are now.
- A good timeline can also help you understand which factors in a person’s life might be causative for others. For example, if a person has suffered a frontal head injury in the past year, this might help explain their changeable moods, presence of depressive disorder, etc.
Sample #1: Conceptualization for CBT case
This is a 35-year-old Caucasian man referred by his physician for treatment of generalized anxiety.
Strengths/supports in his case include willingness to engage in treatment, high average intelligence per recent cognitive testing, supportive family, and regular physical exercise (running).
Limiting factors include relatively low stress coping skills, frequent migraines (likely stress related), and relative social isolation (partly due to some anxiety about social skills).
The client’s presentation on interview and review of medical/psychiatric records show a history of chronic worry, including frequent worries about his wife’s health and his finances. He meets criteria for DSM-5 generalized anxiety disorder. He has also described occasional panic-type episodes, which do not currently meet full criteria for panic disorder but could develop into such without preventive therapy.
Treatments should include CBT for generalized anxiety, including keeping a worry journal; regular assessment of anxiety levels with Penn State Worry Questionnaire and/or Beck Anxiety Inventory; cognitive restructuring around negative beliefs that reinforce anxiety; and practice of relaxation techniques, such as progressive muscle relaxation and diaphragmatic breathing.
Prognosis is good, given the evidence for efficacy of CBT for anxiety disorders generally (Hofmann, Asnaani, Vonk, Sawyer, & Fang, 2012).
Sample #2: Conceptualization for DBT case
This 51-year-old Haitian–American woman is self-referred for depressive symptoms, including reported moods of “rage,” “sadness,” and “emptiness.” She says that many of her difficulties involve family, friends, and coworkers who regularly “disrespect” her and “plot against her behind her back.”
Her current psychiatrist has diagnosed her with personality disorder with borderline features, but she doubts the accuracy of this diagnosis.
Strengths/supports include a willingness to engage in treatment, highly developed and marketable computer programming skills, and engagement in leisure activities such as playing backgammon with friends.
Limiting factors include low stress coping skills, mild difficulties with attention and recent memory (likely due in part to depressive affect), and a tendency to self-medicate with alcohol when feeling depressed.
The client’s presentation on interview, review of medical/psychiatric records, and results of MMPI-2 personality inventory corroborate her psychiatrist’s diagnosis of borderline personality disorder.
The diagnosis is supported by a longstanding history of unstable identity, volatile personal relationships with fear of being abandoned, feelings of emptiness, reactive depressive disorder with suicidal gestures, and lack of insight into interpersonal difficulties that have resulted in her often stressed and depressive state.
Treatments should emphasize a DBT group that her psychiatrist has encouraged her to attend but to which she has not yet gone. There should also be regular individual counseling emphasizing DBT skills including mindfulness or present moment focus, building interpersonal skills, emotional regulation, and distress tolerance. There should be a counseling element for limiting alcohol use. Cognitive exercises are also recommended.
Of note, DBT is the only evidence-based treatment for borderline personality disorder (May, Richardi, & Barth, 2016). Prognosis is guardedly optimistic, provided she engages in both group and individual DBT treatments on a weekly basis, and these treatments continue without interruption for at least three months, with refresher sessions as needed.
Sample #3: Conceptualization in a family therapy case
This 45-year-old African-American woman was initially referred for individual therapy for “rapid mood swings” and a tendency to become embroiled in family conflicts. Several sessions of family therapy also appear indicated, and her psychiatrist concurs.
The client’s husband (50 years old) and son (25 years old, living with parents) were interviewed separately and together. When interviewed separately, her husband and son each indicated the client’s alcohol intake was “out of control,” and that she was consuming about six alcoholic beverages throughout the day, sometimes more.
Her husband and son each said the client was often too tired for household duties by the evening and often had rapid shifts in mood from happy to angry to “crying in her room.”
On individual interview, the client stated that her husband and son were each drinking about as much as she, that neither ever offered to help her with household duties, and that her son appeared unable to keep a job, which left him home most of the day, making demands on her for meals, etc.
On interview with the three family members, each acknowledged that the instances above were occurring at home, although father and son tended to blame most of the problems, including son’s difficulty maintaining employment, on the client and her drinking.
Strengths/supports in the family include a willingness of each member to engage in family sessions, awareness of supportive resources such as assistance for son’s job search, and a willingness by all to examine and reduce alcohol use by all family members as needed.
Limiting factors in this case include apparent tendency of all household members to drink to some excess, lack of insight by one or more family members as to how alcohol consumption is contributing to communication and other problems in the household, and a tendency by husband and son to make this client the family scapegoat.
The family dynamic can be conceptualized in this case through a DBT lens.
From this perspective, problems develop within the family when the environment is experienced by one or more members as invalidating and unsupportive. DBT skills with a nonjudgmental focus, active listening to others, reflecting each other’s feelings, and tolerance of distress in the moment should help to develop an environment that supports all family members and facilitates effective communication.
It appears that all family members in this case would benefit from engaging in the above DBT skills, to support and communicate with one another.
Prognosis is guardedly optimistic if family will engage in therapy with DBT elements for at least six sessions (with refresher sessions as needed).
The following worksheets can be used for case conceptualization and planning.
- Case Conceptualization Worksheet: Individual Counseling helps counselors develop a case conceptualization for individual clients.
- Case Conceptualization Worksheet: Couples Counseling helps counselors develop a case conceptualization for couples.
- Case Conceptualization Worksheet: Family Counseling helps counselors develop a case conceptualization for families.
- Case Conceptualization and Action Plan: Individual Counseling helps clients facilitate conceptualization of their own case, at approximately six weeks into counseling and thereafter at appropriate intervals.
- Case Conceptualization and Action Plan: Couples Counseling helps couples facilitate conceptualization of their own case, at approximately six weeks into counseling and thereafter at appropriate intervals.
- Case Conceptualization and Action Plan: Family Counseling helps families facilitate conceptualization of their own case, at approximately six weeks into counseling and thereafter at appropriate intervals.
The following resources can be found in the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , and their full versions can be accessed by a subscription.
Analyzing Strengths Use in Different Life Domains can help clients understand their notable strengths and which strengths can be used to more advantage in new contexts.
Family Strength Spotting is another relevant resource. Each family member fills out a worksheet detailing notable strengths of other family members. In reviewing all worksheets, each family member can gain a greater appreciation for other members’ strengths, note common or unique strengths, and determine how best to use these combined strengths to achieve family goals.
Four Front Assessment is another resource designed to help counselors conceptualize a case based on a client’s personal and environmental strengths and weaknesses. The idea behind this tool is that environmental factors in the broad sense, such as a supportive/unsupportive family, are too often overlooked in conceptualizing a case.
If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others through CBT, check out this collection of 17 validated positive CBT tools for practitioners . Use them to help others overcome unhelpful thoughts and feelings and develop more positive behaviors.
In helping professions, success in working with clients depends first and foremost on how well you understand them.
This understanding is crystallized in a case conceptualization.
Case conceptualization helps answer key questions. Who is this client? How did they become who they are? What supports do they need to reach their goals?
The conceptualization itself depends on gathering all pertinent data on a given case, through record review, interview, behavioral observation, questionnaires completed by the client, etc.
Once the data is assembled, the counselor, coach, or other involved professional can focus on enumerating the client’s strengths, weaknesses, and limitations.
It is also often helpful to put the client’s strengths and limitations in a timeline so you can see how they have evolved and which factors might have contributed to the emergence of others.
Based on this in-depth understanding of the client, you can then tailor specific recommendations for enhancing their strengths, overcoming their weaknesses, and reaching their particular goals.
We hope you have enjoyed this discussion of how to conceptualize cases in the helping professions and that you will find some tools for doing so useful.
We hope you enjoyed reading this article. For more information, don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free .
- Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research , 36 (5), 427–440.
- May, J. M., Richardi, T. M., & Barth, K. S. (2016). Dialectical behavior therapy as treatment for borderline personality disorder. The Mental Health Clinician , 6 (2), 62–67.
- Sperry, L., & Sperry, J. (2020). Case conceptualization: Mastering this competency with ease and confidence . Routledge.
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At some point in one of your psychology classes, you might be asked to write a case study of an individual. What exactly is a case study? It is essentially an in-depth psychological investigation of a single person or group of people. Case study topics often focus on people who are experiencing symptoms of an illness or on people who have had experiences that cannot be replicated in a lab.
What Should Your Case Study Be About?
The format of your case study might vary depending upon the requirements of the assignment and your instructor's expectations, but most include a detailed background of the individual, a description of the problem the person is facing, a diagnosis, and a description of an intervention using one or more therapeutic approaches.
Of course, the first step in writing a case study is to select a subject. In some cases, you might be allowed to conduct a case study on an actual volunteer or on someone you know such as a friend or family member. In other cases, your instructor might prefer that you select a less personal subject such as an individual from history or a famous literary figure.
Psychology Case Study Ideas
Looking for a good subject for your case study? Here are just a few ideas that might inspire you:
Write About a Famous Psychologist
Famous or exceptional individuals can make excellent case study topics. There are plenty of fascinating figures in the history of psychology who would make for an interesting case study.
Sigmund Freud, Harry Harlow, Erik Erikson, B. F. Skinner, and many other famous thinkers led interesting lives that offer plenty of material for a great case study. Examining their upbringing, experiences, and lives can provide insight into how they developed their theories and approached the study of psychology.
Focus on a Famous Patient in Psychology
Some of the most famous people in psychology sometimes aren't psychologists at all. Instead, the patients, clients, and cases studied by psychologists might prove even more interesting. Think of people like Anna O. , Phineas Gage , and Genie . Other individuals you might want to consider include Kitty Genovese, Little Albert, and David Reimer.
By taking a closer look at the lives of these patients, you can gain greater insight into their experiences. It can also be interesting to see how mental health treatments were different in the past compared to those that might have been used today.
Write About a Famous Historical Figure
Other famous historical figures can also make excellent case study topics. Eleanor Roosevelt, Napoleon, Adolf Hilter, George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and many other famous (and infamous) people could potentially serve as a subject for your case study. Obviously, this will involve some reading and research on your chosen subject's life and accomplishments, but it could certainly make for an interesting paper.
Focus on a Fictional Character or a Famous Literary Figure
Another fun and interesting approach is to conduct a case study of one of your favorite fictional characters. You might opt to tackle a classic character such as Shakespeare's Macbeth or Romeo or Jane Austen's Elizabeth Bennet or Fitzwilliam Darcy. Or instead, you might opt to focus on a more contemporary literary character such as Suzanne Collins's Katniss Everdeen or J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter.
Write About Someone You Know
In some cases, your instructor may allow you to write your case study on a person that you know. Such a project may, however, require special permission from your school's Institutional Review Board. You may also be required or simply prefer to use a pseudonym in order to protect the identity and privacy of your subject. This type of project often requires interviewing your subject and possibly talking to other sources who know the subject such as friends and family members.
A Word From Verywell
As you can see, there are plenty of great options out there when selecting a subject for your case study. First and foremost, always start by paying attention to the directions given by your instructor. In many cases, there will be specific guidelines about whom and what you are allowed to write about. Talk about your case study topic idea with your instructor before you begin to make sure that you have permission to proceed with your project.
Rolls, G. (2019). Classic Case Studies in Psychology: Fourth Edition . United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
By Kendra Cherry Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology.
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Case Study Method In Psychology: Meaning, Pros, and Cons
Page Contents
What is Case Study Method?
The case study method is the in-depth study of any event, person, or problem in a given situation. It strives to get out the root causes of a given spot. Also, referred to as case history or clinical method.
The case study is one of the oldest research methods used particularly to reveal depths for the diagnosis and treatment of behavior disorders in psychology . The psychologist Sigmund Freud, constructed his theory of personality from case studies. Jean Piaget, the most influential observer of children formulated many cognitive theories on children from case studies.
The case study involves making observations for a particular period of time to find the cause and development of a particular behavior pattern. The case record includes information on family background, home life, neighborhood activities, experience at school, health, past life, and so on.
This method is based on the idea that the more we know about individuals, the better we will be able to understand and help them. While using case study the investor uses, tests, checklists, questionnaires, interviews, etc. It can be done at home, school, or work situations.
For example, A child who is problematic at school may be referred to a guidance clinic, where a detailed case history is compiled using all the possible diagnostic testing with personality inventories, intelligence test, psychoanalytic procedures, etc. so that it will be helpful in understanding the child’s problems to provide him with a remedial plan.
The case study method may also be based on a longitudinal study. A longitudinal study follows a study over an extended period of time, with the measurement at periodic intervals. The researchers have to choose one that suits them the best while doing research.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study Method
Advantages:.
- It is very beneficial to know about the social behavioral pattern of the individual in-depth. It provides the perception of inner strivings, tensions, and motivations into one’s life directly.
- It enables the researchers to trace out the relationship of an individual’s inner self with social forces and surroundings for careful historical analysis of the past life.
- The case study method is quite useful for diagnosis, therapy, and other practical case problems.
Disadvantages/Limitations
- In the case of history, the information usually comes from parents, teachers, and other associations of the individual being studied, the subjectivity of the researcher may hamper the report that is needed.
- The danger of false generalizations is always there because no set of rules are followed in the collection of the information and only a few units are studied.
- It consumes more time, effort, and money to go through studying the behavior.
- The case study method can be used in a limited sphere, it is not possible to use for a big number.
Despite its limitations, the case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in social sciences these days. A wide range of private experiences, informal factors, and personal feelings can not experiment directly. In such cases, the case history method proves to be a valuable technique. It proves more useful in the diagnosis and treatment of problem children, neurotics, socially and emotionally maladjusted persons, delinquents, criminals, etc.
Child psychology uses this method to study juvenile delinquency. Similarly, anthropologists, historians, management technicians, novelists, etc. also have used this method extensively. Its use is increasing day by day.
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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide
Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide
Table of Contents
Case study is a research method that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single unit, such as an individual, family, group, organization, community, or event. Case studies are usually conducted by sociologists, psychologists, historians, anthropologists, or researchers from other social science disciplines.
Case studies are used to provide a rich and detailed account of a particular social phenomenon. They are often used to generate new hypotheses or to test existing theories. In some cases, case studies are also used to evaluate programs or interventions.
Types of Case Study
There are three types of case study research:
Exploratory Case Studies
Descriptive case studies, explanatory case studies.
Exploratory case studies are conducted when little is known about a phenomenon. They are used to generate hypotheses and gather preliminary data.
Descriptive case studies describe a phenomenon in detail. They are used to develop an understanding of a complex issue.
Explanatory case studies explain why or how something happens. They are used to test theories and identify cause-and-effect relationships.
Case Study Data Collection Methods
There are a variety of case study data collection methods, including:
Observations
- Document analysis
Interviews are perhaps the most common type of data collection in case studies. They allow researchers to collect detailed information about individuals’ experiences and perspectives.
Observations can also be useful in case studies, particularly if the researcher is interested in studying how people interact with their environment.
Document Analysis
Document analysis is another common data collection method in case studies; it involves examining documents such as policy records, media reports, and demographic data.
How to conduct Case Study Research
Conducting case study research is a complex process that requires both scientific and methodological rigor. Follow the steps below:
- Define the research question or questions to be addressed.
- Determine if there is enough information available about the case or cases you want to study
- Consider your budget and time Constraints.
- Select the appropriate methodology and design.
- Decide if there is an existing theoretical framework that can be applied to your case or cases.
- Collect data, which can be done through interviews, focus groups, surveys, or observation.
- Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
- Communicate the findings.
Advantages of Case Study Research
There are several advantages of using case study research.
- It allows for a close examination of the context within which the phenomenon under investigation occurs.
- It provides rich data that can be analyzed in depth.
- It allows for the development of theory from data.
- It can be used to test hypotheses.
- Case studies can help to refine existing models.
- It can be used for descriptive purposes.
- It promotes reflexivity on the part of the researcher.
Also see Focus Groups in Qualitative Research
Disadvantages of Case Study Research
There are also a number of drawbacks to using this approach.
- It can be difficult to generalize from the case study to other situations. Because the focus is on a single case.
- it can be more difficult to determine the impact of the factors being studied.
- Case study research can be time-consuming and expensive.
About the author
Muhammad Hassan
I am Muhammad Hassan, a Researcher, Academic Writer, Web Developer, and Android App Developer. I have worked in various industries and have gained a wealth of knowledge and experience. In my spare time, I enjoy writing blog posts and articles on a variety of Academic topics. I also like to stay up-to-date with the latest trends in the IT industry to share my knowledge with others through my writing.
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What Is a Case Study in Psychology? (With Methods and Steps)
Updated September 30, 2022
Published January 3, 2022
The Indeed Editorial Team comprises a diverse and talented team of writers, researchers and subject matter experts equipped with Indeed's data and insights to deliver useful tips to help guide your career journey.
Conducting research into various topics requires specific techniques and methods to achieve the best results. Completing a case study can offer insight into individuals, groups, or communities to better understand their thoughts and behaviours. Learning about psychological case studies can help you better prepare your research and reporting methods. In this article, we discuss the definition of a case study in psychology, identify the purpose, advantages, and disadvantages of using research studies, highlight the types and methods used, and uncover the steps to creating an interesting case study.
What is a case study in psychology?
If you conduct research or other methods of gathering information, you may have asked, "What is a case study in psychology?" A psychological case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, community, or event and relies on a descriptive research approach. Psychologists gather information for a case study through psychometric testing, interviews of the test subject, archival research, direct observation, and carefully designed experiments. A case study typically explores psychological processes, conditions, and behaviours.
Why are psychological case studies important?
Case studies in psychology are essential for several reasons. First, a case study allows a researcher to illustrate or test a specific theory. Many psychologists use case studies as exploratory research to develop treatments and confirm diagnoses. Third, the data gathered provides empirical research for others to study and expand on their theories and hypotheses. Case studies also generate new ideas, giving researchers a way to brainstorm creatively in a controlled environment.
Advantages of case studies
Case studies provide researchers with several unique advantages, including:
They allow researchers to observe and record information about rare, impractical, or unethical conditions and behaviours.
They provide researchers with new evidence to support psychological theories.
They help researchers develop hypotheses that others can study or add to in the future.
They offer researchers additional insights into the phenomenon to gain a better understanding of the behaviour or event.
They allow researchers to evaluate conditions or behaviours in a real-world setting that may be difficult to replicate in a laboratory environment.
Disadvantages of case studies
Along with many positive effects of using case studies, there are several disadvantages to consider, including:
Case study results can be difficult to replicate.
Case studies can be expensive and time-consuming.
Researchers can allow their own feelings to influence the case study, known as researcher bias.
Case studies can lack scientific methods and rigour to protect the accuracy of data collected.
Researchers can find the volume of data difficult to analyze and apply to a larger population.
Types of case studies in psychology
There are several types of case studies that psychologists and researchers can use to gather information. The kind of study a researcher uses can depend on the situation being studied, the characteristics of the event, and the case itself. Several examples of case study types include:
Collective case studies: The researcher studies a group of people or a community in a particular setting or conditions to gather information about a behaviour or occurrence.
Descriptive case studies: Starting with a descriptive theory, researchers observe an individual or group and compare observations and information gathered with current views.
Explanatory case studies: Often used for causal investigations, researchers look for specific conditions or factors to identify an explanation for something to have occurred.
Exploratory case studies: Typically used before a more in-depth study, researchers use this method to gather more information to develop their research questions, hypothesis, and form of the case study.
Instrumental case studies: The researcher studies the relationship between variables to understand the individual or group better.
Intrinsic case studies: The researcher has a personal interest in the subject of their studies, such as someone close to them or a group with a condition or behaviour of personal experience.
How to write a psychological case study
Follow these seven steps to write a psychological case study:
1. Create a profile for the subject
As a psychologist or researcher, you are studying a specific individual or group. The first step is to create a profile for your subject. You can use historical case studies for additional data to enhance your research and better understand theories related to your topic. After reviewing previous studies, there are five other research sources you can collect information from, including:
Archival records: This may include survey records, official government documents, employment history, medical records, newspaper articles, journal entries, or personal letters.
Observation: This may include observing the subject in their natural setting, such as daily routines or watching interactions between individuals or groups.
Interviews: Interviews are one of the most vital methods of collecting information in a case study and can include direct personal interviews, structured surveys, and speaking to related individuals, such as family, friends, or coworkers.
Participant observation: This requires the researcher to take part in the events of the study as a participant and observe the group interactions and dynamics from inside the case study.
Personal items: This may include using the subject's personal items for further insight, such as the individual's diary, photographs, unique objects, or clinical notes and reports.
2. Select a case study method
Based on the subject profile and topic, you then choose the best case study type to research your theory and test your hypothesis. You can select from one of the six types above or find another option that best suits your needs. Then you can identify the method of your research. There are two methods of conducting case studies that can influence the research process:
Prospective cash study method
A prospective case study method is when the researcher observes the individual or group to determine the study's outcome. This method often requires the researcher to study many individuals or groups over an extended period. First, the researcher gathers baseline data and then observes conditions and behaviours, along with any influential factors. For example, a psychologist may study a group of individuals over 20 years to monitor the progression of a neurological disorder. They gather baseline information from everyone and look for factors of influence that contribute to the neurological decline.
Retrospective case study method
A retrospective case study method is when the researcher uses historical information to determine the reasons for an outcome. The recorded data is usually for reasons other than research at the time it's collected. For example, a psychologist may start with a result, such as a neurological disorder. Then, they work their way back through an individual's historical information to identify risk factors or other influences that contributed to the onset of the condition.
3. Collect a case history
The next step is to collect and record a case history or background information. For each individual you're studying, you can gather the following information:
age and gender
employment status
physical and mental health status
family member's physical and mental health history
social and relationship status
drug, alcohol, and addiction history
challenges in life
coping skills
personal strengths and weaknesses
4. Identify the presenting problem
The next section of your case study identifies the presenting problem or symptoms of the individual. Include any emotional, sensory, or physical symptoms reported by the subject. Feelings, thoughts, perceptions, and concerns related to the symptoms or problem can also be helpful in documenting. If you conduct any tests or diagnostic assessments, provide detailed descriptions of the processes and outcomes.
5. Analyze the data and provide a diagnosis
The next section of your case study is to analyze the data and provide a diagnosis. Provide evidence to support your diagnosis by explaining each step of your research processes and methods. In your diagnosis, you can identify how your subject's symptoms meet the diagnostic criteria for the condition or disorder. You may also include any challenges in reaching a diagnosis in this section.
6. Select a treatment plan
In this portion of the case study, you address the selected treatment plan for the subject's condition. In addition, you can include any theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or other evidence that supports your decision. Here are four standard treatment approaches you may consider:
Cognitive-behavioural approach: This approach uses cognitive-behavioural therapy during therapy sessions, allowing to subject to develop coping skills and healthier thinking patterns.
Humanistic approach: This approach refers to treatments that relate to the subject's feelings, behaviours, and self-esteem, helping them realize their highest potential and improve their overall wellbeing.
Pharmacological approach: Psychiatrists may use this approach to prescribe medication treatment instead of other forms of therapy to deal with symptoms of mental illnesses or disorders.
Psychoanalytical approach: This approach uses talk therapy to understand aspects of the unconscious mind and how it affects behaviours in the subject.
Describe the goals of treatment and progress markers. For example, some goals may include eliminating all symptoms or minimizing the condition to improve the subject's quality of life.
7. Prepare for discussion
The last section of your case study is a space for discussion about the study itself. For example, you can include information about the study's limitations, critical factors for other researchers to consider when reading your report, and how your findings support previous research. Another addition to this section is any further research you want to complete on the subject or topic.
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Case studies are very detailed investigations of an individual or small group of people, usually regarding an unusual phenomenon or biographical event of interest to a research field. Due to a small sample, the case study can conduct an in-depth analysis of the individual/group.
Evaluation of case studies:
- Case studies create opportunities for a rich yield of data, and the depth of analysis can in turn bring high levels of validity (i.e. providing an accurate and exhaustive measure of what the study is hoping to measure).
- Studying abnormal psychology can give insight into how something works when it is functioning correctly, such as brain damage on memory (e.g. the case study of patient KF, whose short-term memory was impaired following a motorcycle accident but left his long-term memory intact, suggesting there might be separate physical stores in the brain for short and long-term memory).
- The detail collected on a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with current theories, and stimulate new paths for research.
- There is little control over a number of variables involved in a case study, so it is difficult to confidently establish any causal relationships between variables.
- Case studies are unusual by nature, so will have poor reliability as replicating them exactly will be unlikely.
- Due to the small sample size, it is unlikely that findings from a case study alone can be generalised to a whole population.
- The case study’s researcher may become so involved with the study that they exhibit bias in their interpretation and presentation of the data, making it challenging to distinguish what is truly objective/factual.
- Case Studies
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- Volume 21, Issue 1
- What is a case study?
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- Roberta Heale 1 ,
- Alison Twycross 2
- 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
- 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
- Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845
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What is it?
Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2
Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6 ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6
The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6
Benefits and limitations of case studies
If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.
Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6
Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.
Examples of case studies
Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.
One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:
Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.
Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.
Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.
These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.
Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)
The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:
Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).
Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.
Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.
The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10
These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.
- Gustafsson J
- Calanzaro M
- Sandelowski M
Competing interests None declared.
Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.
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Case Study: Definition, Example and How Do I Write a Case Study
Case study: This article explains the concept of case study in a practical way. The article starts with the definition and meaning. You will then read all about the usefulness of the results in these studies and an example of a very remarkable case study. Enjoy reading!
What is a Case Study?
A case study (CS) is an in-depth study of a particular case, such as a person, group, or event, within a real life context. Nearly every aspect of the subject’s life is analyzed to identify patterns and causes of behavior. These studies are used in various fields such as education, medicine, political science, social studies, psychology, marketing ( Market Research ) and business administration ( business case ).
A case study does not necessarily have to highlight one observation or subject. In that case N=1 applies. It is common for multiple individuals or entities to be included within the same case study over one or more time periods. Studies where multiple cases are combined are also referred to as cross-case studies, as opposed to single case studies for individual cases.
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Case Study definition
It is defined by John Gerring as an “intensive study of a single unit or small number of units, with the aim of understanding a larger class of similar units” .
Advantages and Disadvantages of conducting a Case Study
The use of this research method has both strengths and weaknesses. The researchers conducting the research should carefully consider these advantages and disadvantages before deciding whether the CS is indeed the best form of research for their particular task.
One of the greatest benefits of this research method is that it allows researchers to investigate cases that would be impossible to replicate in a laboratory or other setting.
Other benefits are:
- Researchers can collect a lot of information
- Provides the opportunity to collect information on rare or unusual items
- Offers the opportunity to develop hypotheses that can be tested in experimental research
There are also disadvantages to using this research method. Examples of this are:
- It is sometimes difficult to generalize the results to a larger population
- Demonstrating a cause-effect relationship is in many cases impossible
- Scientifically, the case study is not waterproof
Researchers can choose to conduct case studies for unique or recently discovered phenomena. The results they obtain can help them develop follow-up research questions. These will be investigated in future studies.
Case Study Example
In the field of psychology in particular, there have been remarkable case studies, including studies by Sigmund Freud . Many of his theories have been developed through the use of these studies.
A well-known example of this is the study of Little Hans.
Little Hans was the son of a friend of Sigmund, Max Graf. This little boy witnessed a serious accident in the street, where a horse collapsed with a cart that was overloaded. The five-year-old boy developed a great fear of horses and other animals, so he did not dare to leave the house for fear of encountering animals. The father wrote letters to Sigmund, describing his son’s behavior. The therapist and client met only once, but Freud published the case as “Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy” , in 1909.
Among other things, the father wrote about the development of the boy and his interest in the male genitalia. The therapist attributed this behavior to the phallic phase of psychosexual development. During this phase, the erogenous zone switches to the genitals.
Signs of the Oedipus complex can also be observed at this stage. A child then competes with his father for his position as the central focus of his mother’s affections. Freud believed that this idea was supported by the fantasy described by Little Hans, in which a giraffe and another disheveled giraffe entered the room. When the boy took the last giraffe away, the other giraffe protested. Sigmund believed the giraffes represented his parents. The crumpled giraffe represented his mother, with whom he shared a bed when the father was absent. The other giraffe represented his father.
Children can also develop castration anxiety as a result of their fear of the threat they pose to their parents’ relationship.
According to Freud , the boy’s fear of horses was the cause of his fear of his father. The fear therefore shifted to animals, whose blinkers resembled the man with his glasses. The little boy’s fear of horses disappeared, according to Freud , when his fantasies indicated the resolution of his castration anxiety and the acceptance of his love for his mother.
Various types of Case Studies
There are different types that are used by psychologists and other researchers. The three main types are collective case studies, instrumental case studies and intrinsic case studies. The type used by a researcher depends on the characteristics of the case.
Collective case studies
In this form of research, a group of people is studied. For example, researchers look at a group of people in a certain setting, or at an entire community. An example would be psychologists examining how access to a particular drug affects the collective mental well-being of the people in that group.
Instrumental studies
An instrumental study is used to gain insight into a particular phenomenon. For example, a researcher interested in children with diabetes could start a study in a high school through an exercise program. The focus in this case is not on the children or the program, but on the link between children and exercise and why some children become obese.
Intrinsic studies
Intrinsic studies are those case studies where the researcher has a personal interest in conducting them. Jean Piaget, a well-known Swiss psychologist, studied his own children. This is a good example of how intrinsic studies can contribute to the development of a theory.
Exploratory studies
Exploratory studies can be used as a prelude to more in-depth research. This form allows researchers to collect more information so that they can better formulate their research questions and hypotheses.
Descriptive studies
Descriptive studies start with a theory. Subjects are then observed in a setting and the information gained is compared with an existing theory.
Explanatory studies
Explanatory studies are used to conduct causal investigations. That means that researchers are mainly interested in certain factors that cause other things. Although it is difficult to confirm a direct cause-and-effect relationship with these studies, it is possible to discover a possible relationship. However, it cannot then be declared irrefutable.
How Do I Write a Case Study: a Step-by-Step Plan
Do you want to get started writing a great case study? Follow the steps below for an effective case study approach.
Step 1: Select a case
Once a problem definition and research question have been established in the research design, the researcher is ready to choose a specific case to focus on. A good case study will at least produce the following:
- Offers new or unexpected insights into the chosen topic
- Challenges existing views or makes them more complex
- Suggests practical actions to solve a problem
- Opens new avenues for future case study research
Step 2: Build a theoretical framework
The second step is to develop a theoretical framework. Case studies focus more on concrete details and specific issues than on a general theory. Still, they must have some connection to theory in a particular field. In this way, it is not just an isolated description, but is related to existing knowledge on a subject.
The study may focus on:
- Expanding a theory by discovering new concepts and ideas
- Challenging a theory by exploring outliers and exceptions that are inconsistent with existing assumptions
- Ensuring that an analysis has a solid academic basis through a literature study, which means identifying concepts and theories to guide and support their analysis and interpretation
Step 3: Collect data
There are many different research methods that can be used to collect data on a topic. Researchers tend to focus on qualitative data and collect it through methods such as interviews, observations, and the analysis of primary and secondary sources. It is of course also possible that quantitative data is collected, or a combination of the two.
An example of a mixed methods is a study on the development of wind farms in a rural area. Quantitative data can then be focused on employment and business income figures. Qualitative data then concerns, for example, the perceptions and experiences of the population and the media attention for the development of the parks.
The aim is to get as complete a picture as possible of the case and the context.
Step 4: Describe and analyze the case
The last step is to bring together all relevant aspects to form the most complete picture possible about the subject. How the findings are presented depends on the type of research involved. Some studies are prepared as a scientific article with separate chapters for methods, results and discussions. Others are written in a narrative style, with the aim of looking at the case from different angles.
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Now it’s your turn
What do you think? Do you recognize the explanation in this blog post about the case study? Do you have experience conducting this research method, or multiple case studies? Or have you perhaps been the subject of such a study? Are you still missing information about a certain related topic? Let us know in the comments or fill out the contact form.
Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.
More information
- Kitchenham, B., Pickard, L., & Pfleeger, S. L. (1995). Case studies for method and tool evaluation . IEEE software, 12(4), 52-62.
- Stake, R. E. (2008). Qualitative case studies .
- Yin, R. K. (2009). How to do better case studies . The SAGE handbook of applied social research methods, 2(254-282).
- Yin, R. K. (2003). Designing case studies . Qualitative research methods, 5(14), 359-386.
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A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.
In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.
case study an in-depth investigation of a single individual, family, event, or other entity. Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual's background, relationships, and behavior.
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used.
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends. Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments.
Case Studies Psychology Addiction Cognition and Development Raw data Scientific Data Analysis Statistical Tests Thematic Analysis Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test Developmental Psychology Adolescence Adulthood and Aging Application of Classical Conditioning Biological Factors in Development Childhood Development Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Sam, a 15-year-old adolescent. Sam was team captain of his soccer team, but an unexpected fight with another teammate prompted his parents to meet with a clinical psychologist. Sam was diagnosed with major depressive disorder after showing an increase in symptoms over the previous three months. Several recent challenges in his family and ...
noun Synonyms of case study 1 : an intensive analysis of an individual unit (such as a person or community) stressing developmental factors in relation to environment 2 : case history Example Sentences a case study of prisoners The company's recent history is a case study in bad management.
CASE STUDY. n. an in-depth assessment and investigation conducted on a target individual, family unit, or social group. It requires a researcher to collect multiple types of data that would prove to be useful in creating a complete biographical, psychological, physiological, and environmental background on the case.
A psychology case study is a thorough study of a single person, community or event that relies on observations, facts and experiments to gather information. Psychologists collect information for a case study through psychometric testing, observation, interviews, experiments and case study archives.
Sample #3: Conceptualization in a family therapy case. This 45-year-old African-American woman was initially referred for individual therapy for "rapid mood swings" and a tendency to become embroiled in family conflicts. Several sessions of family therapy also appear indicated, and her psychiatrist concurs.
Phineas Gage. The case of Phineas Gage is perhaps the most cited study in psychology. This famous case study showed how different areas of the brain affect personality and cognitive ability. While working as a construction foreman on a railroad, Phineas Gage was involved in an accident in which a rod was pushed through his cheek and brain.
Other famous historical figures can also make excellent case study topics. Eleanor Roosevelt, Napoleon, Adolf Hilter, George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and many other famous (and infamous) people could potentially serve as a subject for your case study. Obviously, this will involve some reading and research on your chosen subject's life and ...
The case study is one of the oldest research methods used particularly to reveal depths for the diagnosis and treatment of behavior disorders in psychology. The psychologist Sigmund Freud, constructed his theory of personality from case studies.
Case study is a research method that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single unit, such as an individual, family, group, organization, community, or event. Case studies are usually conducted by sociologists, psychologists, historians, anthropologists, or researchers from other social science disciplines.
A psychological case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, community, or event and relies on a descriptive research approach. Psychologists gather information for a case study through psychometric testing, interviews of the test subject, archival research, direct observation, and carefully designed experiments.
Share : Case studies are very detailed investigations of an individual or small group of people, usually regarding an unusual phenomenon or biographical event of interest to a research field. Due to a small sample, the case study can conduct an in-depth analysis of the individual/group.
Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research.1 However, very simply… 'a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units'.1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a ...
Case study in psychology refers to the use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of techniques may be employed including personal interviews, direct-observation, psychometric tests, and archival records.In psychology case studies are most often used in clinical research to describe rare events and conditions, which ...
A case study (CS) is an in-depth study of a particular case, such as a person, group, or event, within a real life context. Nearly every aspect of the subject's life is analyzed to identify patterns and causes of behavior.